Ahmad Sanjar (; full name: Muizz ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Adud ad-Dawlah Abul-Harith Ahmad Sanjar ibn Malik-Shah[ معزالدنیاوالدین عدودالدوله ابوالحارث احمد سنجر ابن ملکشاه]) (6 November 1086 – 8 May 1157)[Rashid ad-Din. "Collection of annals". Translated from Persian by O.I.Smirnova, edited by prof. A.A.Semenova. Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1952. Vol.1, book.2. p. 80.] was the Seljuk dynasty ruler of Greater Khorasan from 1097 until 1118,[ "SANJAR, Aḥmad b. Malekšāh" Encyclopædia Iranica] when he became the Sultan of the Seljuq Empire, which he ruled until his death in 1157.
Early years
Sanjar was born on 6 November 1086
in
Sinjar, a town situated in Upper Mesopotamia. Although primary sources state that he was named after his birthplace (Rāvandi, p. 185; Ebn al-Jawzi, XVIII, p. 161) Bosworth notes
Sanjar is a
Turkic languages name, denoting "he who pierces", "he who thrusts".
He was a son of Malik Shah I and participated in wars of succession against his three brothers and a nephew, namely Mahmud I,
Barkiyaruq, Malik Shah II and Muhammad I. In 1096, he was given the province of
Greater Khorasan to govern under his brother Muhammad I.
[Grousset, René (1970) The Empire of the Steppes Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA, p. 159, ] Over the next several years Ahmad Sanjar became the ruler of most of
Iran with his capital at
Nishapur.
Campaigns and Battles
Battle with Emir Muhammad
In 1097,
Berkyaruq appointed Sanjar as the governor of
Greater Khorasan.
The Seljuk Prince Emir Muhammad rebelled during Sanjar's term as governor of
Greater Khorasan and sought support to take control of Khorasan. Emir Muhammad found this support from the
Ghaznavids and marched against Sanjar. Upon receiving news that Emir Muhammad had arrived with his army, Sanjar marched against him with his army. In the battle between the two sides, Emir Muhammad's army was defeated and Emir Muhammad was taken prisoner.
Thanks to this victory, Sanjar both increased his reputation and prevented Khorasan from falling into the hands of the
Ghaznavids. Because if Emir Muhammad had been victorious, he would have entered the service of the
Ghaznavids as the governor of Khorasan.
Battle of Balkh (1098)
The Seljuk prince Devlet-Shah, who formed an army in
Tokharistan and rebelled in 1098,
launched an expedition to seize control of
Khorasan. Devlet-Shah marched with his army towards
Balkh. Hearing that Devlet-Shah was approaching Balkh, Sanjar launched an expedition against him. The two armies met near Balkh. In the ensuing battle, Devlet-Shah and his army were defeated. Devlet-Shah was taken prisoner, his eyes sealed, and he was imprisoned.
Battle of Nushecan (1100)
When Sanjar was governor of
Khorasan, there was a governor named Habeshi ibn Altuntak. Parts of
Khorasan,
Tabaristan, and
Gerdkuh were under the control of the Habeshi. Sanjar launched an expedition against the Habeshi with an army of 20,000.
Later, Sanjar received news that a 5,000-strong Batini army
had arrived to support the Habeshi. The Habeshi army was larger than Sanjar's, and this caused unrest within Sanjar's army.
According to some sources, the Habeshi requested assistance from
Berkyaruq, who responded positively.
Berkyaruq came to
Greater Khorasan with his army. The two armies met near Nushecan.
In the battle between the two parties, Sanjar's army defeated Berkyaruq's army. Habeshi bin Altuntaq was taken prisoner.
Defense of Khorasan (1102)
While Sanjar was not in
Greater Khorasan, the Kara-Khanid ruler Kadir Khan (Arslan Khan) took advantage of this and went on an expedition to
Greater Khorasan with an army of 100,000. Sanjar, who heard about this expedition of Kadir Khan, returned with his cavalry unit.
While Kadir Khan (Arslan Khan) was out hunting, he was taken prisoner in a sudden raid by the Seljuks. Sanjar ordered Kadir Khan to be killed.
Thus, Sanjar took control of
Transoxiana. Sanjar then attacked
Termez, captured the city, and installed Muhammad ibn Suleiman on the Western Kara-Khanid throne. Muhammad ibn Suleiman ascended the throne in
Samarkand.
Battle of Nakhshab (1110)
In 1110, the Kara-Khanid prince Sagün Bey gathered an army and rebelled against the Kara-Khanid ruler Muhammad ibn Suleiman. In the face of this rebellion, Muhammad ibn Suleiman asked for help from Sanjar, the governor of
Khorasan of the
Seljuk Empire, of which he was a vassal. Sanjar responded positively and sent his army to Kara-Khanid territory. The two armies met near
Qarshi. In the ensuing battle, Sagün Bey and his army suffered a major defeat. Sanjar's army gained considerable booty. After these events, Sanjar's army returned to Khorasan.
Campaign against the Nizari Ismailis
Sanjar undertook a campaign to eliminate the Nizari Ismailis within Persia and successfully drove them from a number of their strongholds, including
Quhistan and
Tabas.
[Franzius, Enno (1969) History of the Order of Assassins Funk and Wagnalls, New York, p. 59, ] However, an anecdote indicates that en route to their chief stronghold at
Alamut, Sanjar woke up one day to find a dagger beside him, pinning a note from
Hassan-i Sabbah stating that he (Hassan) would like peace. Sanjar, shocked by this event, sent envoys to Hassan and they both agreed to stay out of each other's way.
[Lewis, Bernard (1968) The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam Basic Books, New York, p. 30, ]
Battle of Ghazni (1117)
The death of Mas'ud III of Ghazni in 1115 began a heated contest for the throne.
Shirzad took the throne that year but the next year he was assassinated by his younger brother Arslan. Arslan had to face the rebellion of his other brother, Bahram, who received support from the Seljuk Sultan Ahmad Sanjar.
[Jaques 2007, p. 391] Ahmad Sanjar invading from
Greater Khorasan took his army into
Afghanistan and inflicted a crushing defeat to Arslan near Ghazni at Shahrabad. Arslan managed to escape and Bahram succeeded to the throne as the Seljuk's vassal.
[Jaques 2007, p. 391]
Battle of Saveh (1119)
On February 26, 1105 Sultan
Barkiyaruq died. He chose his younger son, Muizzeddin Malik-Shah, as heir to the throne. Malik-Shah took the name
Malik-Shah II after being proclaimed the Sultan of the Seljuk Empire. However, the true power was in the hands of his uncle,
Muhammad Tapar. In the same year, Muhammad Tapar dethroned his nephew and started to rule the State himself as sultan. When Muhammad died on April 4, 1118, his son Mahmud II was declared as new sultan.
When Muhammad's son Mahmud II ascended the throne,
Emir of
Yazd Garshasp II fell into disgrace; slander about him spread to the court that made him lose confidence, and made Mahmud send a military force to Yazd where Garshasp was arrested and jailed in
Jibal, while Yazd was granted to the royal cupbearer. Garshasp, however, escaped and returned to Yazd, where he requested protection from Ahmad Sanjar (Garshasp's wife was the sister of Ahmad Sanjar).
[Bosworth, C. Edmund (1983). "ABŪ KĀLĪJĀR GARŠĀSP (II)". Encyclopædia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 3. London et al.: C. Edmund Bosworth. pp. 328–329.]
Garshasp urged Ahmad Sanjar to invade the domains of Mahmud in Central Iran and gave him information on how to march to Central Iran, and the ways to combat Mahmud. Ahmad accepted and advanced with an army to the west in 1119, where he together with "five kings" defeated Mahmud at Saveh. The kings who aided Ahmad during the battle were Garshasp himself, the Emir of Sistan and the Khwarazmshah, including two other unnamed kings. Nizari forces were also present in Ahmad Sanjar's army. After being victorious, Ahmad Sanjar then restored the domains of Garshasp II. Ahmad Sanjar then marched as far as Baghdad, where he agreed with Mahmud that he should marry one of his daughters, and that he should give up strategic territories in northern Persia.
Campaign of Western Kara-Khanid (1130)
As a result of the internal turmoil that broke out in the Western Kara-Khanid country in 1130, the Western Kara-Khanid ruler Arslan Khan asked for help from Sanjar. After a while, he announced that the internal unrest had ended and asked for Sanjar to return. Later, it was revealed that Sanjar would be assassinated by Arslan Khan's order. Following these events, Sanjar marched to
Samarkand with his army and laid siege to the city. The
Seljuk Empire army under the command of Sanjar captured
Samarkand.
Battle of Kashgar
When the
Qara-Khitai migrating west arrived in the Kara-Khanid lands, the Eastern Kara-Khanid ruler Ahmed Khan defeated the Qara-Khitans in 1122 and took them into his service. Later, after the death of Ahmed Khan, during the reign of the ruler who ascended to the Eastern Kara-Khanid throne, a rebellion broke out in the Eastern Kara-Khanid lands, including many tribes, primarily the
Oghuz Turks and
Karluks. Taking advantage of this rebellion, the Qara-Khitans captured
Balasagun. The Eastern Kara-Khanid, who were vassals of the
Seljuk Empire, asked for help from the Great Seljuk Sultan Sanjar. Sanjar also organized an expedition with his army to the Eastern Kara-Khanid lands in 1130. The leader of the rebels fled upon hearing of Sanjar's arrival. Sanjar defeated the advancing towards the Eastern Islamic lands Qara-Khitai army near
Kashgar, and then defeated the Oghuz, Karluks and other tribes.
Battle of Dinavar (1132)
After Mahmud's death, his son Davud and brothers Mas'ud and Seljuk-Shah started a struggle for power. Sanjar, disturbed by this struggle, organized an expedition with his army to the western part of the country.When Sanjar arrived in the region, news spread that he would march on
Baghdad with his army. Later, Sanjar's name was removed from the
and Mas'ud, Seljuk-Shah and the caliph
Al-Mustarshid formed an alliance against Sanjar.
Sanjar prepared his army against this alliance and marched against them. The two armies met near
Dinavar District. As a result of the battle, the allies were defeated by Sanjar.
Sanjar later gave
Tughril II the lands under Mahmud's control.
Campaign of Ghaznavids (1135)
Bahram Shah, Sultan of the
Ghaznavids, a vassal of the
Seljuk Empire, failed to pay taxes to the Seljuk Empire. He also seized the property of his own people and mistreated them. Following these developments, Sultan Sanjar decided to campaign against the Ghaznavids. In August or September 1135, the Seljuk army mobilized and entered the Ghaznavid Empire's territory, arriving near their capital,
Ghazni. Bahram Shah did not dare to fight and sent ambassadors to Sultan Sanjar. Bahram Shah then abandoned Ghazni and fled to
India. Consequently, the Seljuk army under Sultan Sanjar captured Ghazni, the Ghaznavid capital, and seized Bahram Shah's property. Sultan Sanjar also remedied the grievances of the people of Ghazni and put the state's affairs in order.
In exchange for Bahram Shah's apology and promise not to repeat his past mistakes, Sultan Sanjar pardoned him and reinstated him as Sultan of Ghaznavid Empire.
Additionally, the Seljuks captured 10,000 Ghaznavid soldiers in this campaign.
Campaign of Khwarezm (1138)
Atsiz, one of Sanjar's governors, captured Jand and Mangyshlak and killed the Muslims who fought against the enemy forces in this region. After these events, Sanjar decided to organize an expedition against
Atsiz. In 1138, Sanjar marched with his army to
Khwarazm and defeated Atsiz and his army in the Battle of
Hazorasp and captured
Khwarazm. He then left the governorship of
Khwarazm to his nephew Suleiman-Shah and returned to his capital,
Merv.
Battle of Qatwan (1141)
In 1141, Ahmad, along with Garshasp II, marched to confront the Kara Khitan threat and engaged them near Samarkand at the Battle of Qatwan. He suffered an astounding defeat, and Garshasp was killed. Ahmad escaped with only fifteen of his elite horsemen, losing all Seljuq territory east of the
Syr Darya (Jaxartes).
[Ibn al-Athir as cited by Zarncke, Friedrich (1879) Der Priester Johannes S. Heizel, Leipzig, p. 856-857 ][ Liao Shih (the official history of the Khitan Dynasty) cited by Wittfogel, Karl A. and Feng Chia-Sheng (1949) History of Chinese Society: Liao, 907-1125 American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, p. 639 ]
Campaign of Khwarezm (1143)
Atsiz entered into a struggle with Suleiman-Shah in 1141 and captured
Khwarazm. Atsiz declared his loyalty to Sanjar, who was preparing to go on a campaign against the
Kara-Khitans. Since Sanjar was also going on a campaign against the
Kara-Khitans, he did not send him an army and left him as the governor of
Khwarezm. Taking advantage of the defeat following the Battle of Qatwan,
Atsiz attacked
Greater Khorasan, occupied and plundered many cities, including the capital
Merv, and captured their scholars. After escaping the Battle of Qatwan, Sanjar marched against Atsiz with the new army he had established. After these events, Atsiz fled to Khwarezm. Sanjar then marched to Khwarezm with his army in 1143. Sanjar entered the
Khwarazm region and invaded Khwarezm. Later, Sanjar advanced to
Urgench, the capital of Khwarezm, where
Atsiz was located, and besieged the city. Realizing that he could not cope with Sanjar, Atsiz asked for forgiveness from Sanjar and returned the goods he had plundered and the scholars he had captured.
Campaign of Khwarezm (1147)
When Sanjar received news that
Atsiz was continuing to disobey, he sent an envoy to him. While the envoy was with
Atsiz, he informed Sanjar that there was a plan to assassinate Sanjar and that two assassins had been sent to
Greater Khorasan for this purpose.
Atsiz, who learned of what the envoy had done, killed the envoy. Following these events, Sanjar marched on
Khwarazm with his army in 1147. Sanjar first besieged and captured the castle of
Hazorasp. Sanjar then advanced towards
Urgench, the capital of
Khwarazm. Realizing that he would be defeated by Sanjar,
Atsiz sent envoys, begged for forgiveness and offered obedience. Thereupon, Sanjar forgave him and left him as the governor of
Khwarazm.
Battle of Nab (1152)
After the Battle of Qatwan, the
Ghurid dynasty led by Ala al-Din Husayn, a vassal of the
Ghaznavids, captured
Herat and advanced towards
Balkh. Following these developments, the Seljuk commander Emir Kumac, who took action to stop the Ghurids, was defeated.
Later, Ala al-Din Husayn attacked the
Ghaznavids, a vassal of the Seljuks. He occupied
Ghazni, the capital of the Ghaznavids, and burned the city.
Later, Ala al-Din Husayn declared his independence.
Following these events, Sanjar organized an expedition against Ala al-Din Husayn. The two armies met at a place called Nab near
Herat on June 24, 1152. In the ensuing battle, Ala al-Din Husayn was decisively defeated and taken prisoner by Sanjar.
Campaign against the Nizari Ismailis (1152)
In 1152, Sanjar launched a campaign against the Nizari Ismailis. Sanjar's army marched on
Torshiz. The Seljuk army attacked Nizari Ismaili towns and castles. Sanjar's army ravaged and occupied the Nizari Ismaili towns and castles. After dealing a heavy blow to the Nizari Ismailis, Sanjar ended the campaign and returned with his army.
Rebellion of Oghuz Turks
Sanjar's as well as the Seljuks' rule collapsed as a consequence of yet another unexpected defeat, this time at the hands of the Seljuks’ own tribe, the
Oghuz Turks, in 1153.
Sanjar was captured during the battle and held in captivity until 1156.
It brought chaos to the Empire - situation later exploited by the victorious Turkmens, whose hordes would overrun Khorasan unopposed, wreaking colossal damage on the province and prestige of Sanjar.
Sanjar eventually escaped from captivity in the fall of 1156, but soon died in
Merv (present-day Turkmenistan), in 1157. After his death, Turkic rulers, Turkmen tribal forces, and other secondary powers competed for Khorasan, and after a long period of confrontations, the province was finally conquered by the
Ghurids in 1192, and by the Khwarazmians in the early 1200s.
[C. Edmond Bosworth, “The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217),” Camb. Hist. Iran V, 1968, pp.94-185]
Death and legacy
Sanjar died in 1157 and was buried in
Merv. His tomb was destroyed by the
in 1221, during their invasion of the Khwarezmian Empire.
The death of Sanjar meant the end of the Seljuq dynasty as an empire, since they controlled only Iraq and Azerbaijan afterwards. Sanjar is considered one of the most prominent Seljuq sultans and was the longest reigning Muslim ruler until the Mongols arrived. Although of Turkic origin, Sanjar was highly Iranized, and due to his feats, even became a legendary figure like some of the mythological characters in the Shahnameh. Indeed, medieval sources described Sanjar as having "the majesty of the Sasanian Empire and the glory of the Kayanid dynasty".
Sanjar was widely regarded as a pious and God-fearing ruler, with sources noting his personal ascetic practices, such as wearing simple attire. He was also a diligent student of religious knowledge and maintained close relationships with the ulema, ascetics, and hermits. This devotion was so prominent that his enemies, after his defeat and capture, specifically targeted religious scholars and government officials to express their anti-Sanjar sentiment.
Described as a king "of right opinion, sound belief, and truthful promise", Sanjar was a fervent defender of Sunni Islam. His reign was characterized by a strict adherence to the Sunnah and the high road of justice. He was actively involved in combatting heresy, even being credited with saving orthodox Islam in Herat by defeating the Batini leader Habashi b. Altutiyaq.
Family
One of his wives was Turkan Khatun. She was the daughter of Muhammad Arslan Khan, the ruler of the Kara-Khanid Khanate.
She died in April 1156,
and was buried in Yusuf Hamadani Mausoleum Complex in Merv.
Another wife was Abkhaziyya Khatun. She was the daughter of King Demetrius I of Georgia, and the widow of his nephew Sultan Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. They married after Mas'ud's death in 1152.
One of Sanjar's daughters was Mah-i Mulk Khatun. She was born in 1105. In probably 1119, Sanjar married her to his nephew Mahmud II. When she died aged seventeen
in 1122,
Sanjar sent another daughter, Amir Sitti Khatun, to be his wife.
Malik-Shah III and Gawhar Nasab Khatun were the children of this union.
She died in 1129.
Amira Khatun,
another of Sanjar's daughters married Abbasid Caliph
Al-Mustarshid in 1124.
Another daughter of Sanjar, Gawhar Khatun, married his nephew, Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud in 1134.
A daughter of this union was married by Mas'ud to his nephew Dawud, son of Mahmud II. They failed to get on together, and Ma'sud gave his daughter to Dawud's brother, Muhammad II.
Notes
Sources
External links
